Evidence on the Metaverse’s Impact in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.46328/ijtes.8626Keywords:
Metaverse, Virtual reality, Augmented reality, Extended reality, Immersive environments, Higher educationAbstract
This study presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of twenty peer-reviewed empirical studies that examined the use of Metaverse technologies in higher education. The study aims to examine current research trends, academic fields, benefits, challenges, and the overall impact of Metaverse applications on student learning outcomes. The meta-analysis results indicate that Metaverse-based educational interventions have a significant positive impact on learning effectiveness (Hedges’ g = 0.758, p < .001), with varying effect sizes across different academic disciplines. The strongest effects were detected in arts and humanities, health and welfare, and business, administration and law. The included studies revealed several educational benefits, most notably improved learning outcomes, increased student motivation, and enhanced engagement and interaction within immersive learning environments. On the other hand, several challenges emerged, including technical issues, high implementation costs, and cognitive overload. Moreover, the results highlighted significant research gaps, including a limited number of studies addressing the needs of students with disabilities or gifted students, and insufficient attention to issues related to inclusion and accessibility. The results generally indicate that the Metaverse has promising potential for reshaping learning experiences in higher education, but further longitudinal and experimental studies are needed to explore its effectiveness across diverse disciplines and educational contexts.
References
Akhil, M., Lathabhavan, R., & Mathew, A. M. (2024). Exploring research trends of metaverse in education: a bibliometric analysis. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning. https://doi.org/10.1108/HESWBL-06-2023-0156
Al-Adwan, A. S., Li, N., Al-Adwan, A., Abbasi, G. A., Albelbisi, N. A., & Habibi, A. (2023). “Extending the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to Predict University Students’ Intentions to Use Metaverse-Based Learning Platforms”. Education and Information Technologies, 28(11), 15381-15413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11816-3
Al-Hafdi, F. S., & Alhalafawy, W. S. (2026). Learning analytics for reducing student dropout in digital video platforms. PeerJ Computer Science, 12, e3532. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3532
Al-kfairy, M., Ahmed, S., & Khalil, A. (2024). Factors impacting users’ willingness to adopt and utilize the metaverse in education: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 15, 100459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2024.100459
Alfaisal, R., Hashim, H., & Azizan, U. H. (2024). Metaverse system adoption in education: a systematic literature review. Journal of Computers in Education, 11(1), 259-303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-022-00256-6
Alrashedi, N. T., Alsulami, S. M. H., Flatah, A. I., Najmi, A. H., & Alhalafawy, W. S. (2024). The Effects of Gamified Platforms on Enhancing Learners’ Ambition. Journal of Ecohumanism, 3(8), 3393-3304. https://doi.org/10.62754/joe.v3i8.5004
Avcu, Y. E., & Yaman, Y. (2024). Differentiated Science Instruction in the Metaverse with Gifted Students: Let’s Visit Kaz Mountains National Park! Journal of Inquiry Based Activities, 14(2), 46-65. https://www.ated.info.tr/index.php/ated/article/view/216
Bernard, R. M., Abrami, P. C., Lou, Y., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Wozney, L., Wallet, P. A., Fiset, M., & Huang, B. (2004). How Does Distance Education Compare With Classroom Instruction? A Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Literature. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 379-439. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074003379
Bernardes, A., Gardim, L., Araujo, A. A. C., Jensen, R., Motta, R. A., de Almeida, D. M., de Lima, R. R., & Peres, H. H. C. (2024). Exploring the metaverse in the education of healthcare students: A scoping review. Revista Latino-Americana De Enfermagem, 32, Article e4347. https://doi.org/10.1590/1518-8345.7256.4347
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2010). A basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods, 1(2), 97-111. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.12
Buhalis, D., Leung, D., & Lin, M. (2023). Metaverse as a disruptive technology revolutionising tourism management and marketing. Tourism Management, 97, 104724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2023.104724
Camilleri, M. A. (2024). Metaverse applications in education: a systematic review and a cost-benefit analysis. Interactive Technology and Smart Education, 21(2), 245-269. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITSE-01-2023-0017
Çelik, F. (2026). The impact of game‐based metaverse on language learning motivation, anxiety, and vocabulary. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 36(2), 1305-1322. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12858
Chanda, R. S., Pabalkar, V., & Sharma, S. (2024). Attitude and behavioral intention for using metaverse in education: learner’s perspective. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-07-2023-0307
Chang, C.-Y., Patcharin, P., & and Chang, S.-C. (2022). Effects of integrating maternity VR-based situated learning into professional training on students’ learning performances. Interactive Learning Environments, 32(5), 2121-2135. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2022.2141263
Chauhan, S. (2017). A meta-analysis of the impact of technology on learning effectiveness of elementary students. Computers & Education, 105, 14-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.11.005
Chen, P.-H., Ho, H.-W., Chen, H.-C., Tam, K.-W., Liu, J.-C., & Lin, L.-F. (2024). Virtual reality experiential learning improved undergraduate students’ knowledge and evaluation skills relating to assistive technology for older adults and individuals with disabilities. BMC Medical Education, 24(1), 101. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05085-y
Chen, Q. (2025). Enhancing cross-cultural educational awareness: Experimental study on immersive experiences using virtual reality. British Educational Research Journal, 51(2), 687-704. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.4089
Chen, W., Zhang, J., & Yu, Z. (2023). A bibliometric analysis of the use of the metaverse in education over three decades. International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education (IJICTE), 19(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJICTE.322101
Chen, X., Zou, D., Xie, H., & Wang, F. L. (2023). Metaverse in Education: Contributors, Cooperations, and Research Themes. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 16(6), 1111-1129. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2023.3277952
Chua, H. W., & Yu, Z. (2024). A systematic literature review of the acceptability of the use of Metaverse in education over 16 years. Journal of Computers in Education, 11(2), 615-665. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-023-00273-z
Cochran, W. G. (1954). The Combination of Estimates from Different Experiments. Biometrics, 10(1), 101-129. https://doi.org/10.2307/3001666
Cohen, J. (1968). Weighted kappa: nominal scale agreement with provision for scaled disagreement or partial credit. Psychol Bull, 70(4), 213-220. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0026256
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychol Bull, 112(1), 155. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
Dwivedi, Y. K., Hughes, L., Wang, Y., Alalwan, A. A., Ahn, S. J., Balakrishnan, J., Barta, S., Belk, R., Buhalis, D., & Dutot, V. (2023). Metaverse marketing: How the metaverse will shape the future of consumer research and practice. Psychology & Marketing, 40(4), 750-776. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21767
Fan, J. (2023). RETRACTED: Theory and method for evaluating the importance of college course teaching for future education: From virtual reality to metaverse. Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems, 44, 5893-5919. https://doi.org/10.3233/JIFS-220931
Geng, X. Y., & Su, Y. S. (2024). Enhancing K-12 Students' STEM Learning Through the Integration of the Metaverse Into Online and Blended Environments: A Meta-Analysis. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 22(SUPPL1), 111-143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-024-10484-0
George-Reyes, C. E., Sánchez, I. C. P., Glasserman-Morales, L. D., & López-Caudana, E. O. (2023). The Metaverse and complex thinking: opportunities, experiences, and future lines of research. Frontiers in Education, 8, Article 1166999. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1166999
Glass, G. V. (1976). Primary, Secondary, and Meta-Analysis of Research1. Educational Researcher, 5(10), 3-8. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X005010003
Hadi, R., Melumad, S., & Park, E. S. (2024). The Metaverse: A new digital frontier for consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 34(1), 142-166. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1356
Hakim, V. G. A., Yang, S. H., Wang, J. H., Lin, H. H., & Chen, G. D. (2024). Digital Twins of Pet Robots to Prolong Interdependent Relationships and Effects on Student Learning Performance. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 17, 1843-1857. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2024.3416209
Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical Methods for Meta-Analysis. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-03396-0
Hennig-Thurau, T., Aliman, D. N., Herting, A. M., Cziehso, G. P., Linder, M., & Kübler, R. V. (2023). Social interactions in the metaverse: Framework, initial evidence, and research roadmap. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 51(4), 889-913. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-022-00908-0
Huedo-Medina, T. B., Sánchez-Meca, J., Marín-Martínez, F., & Botella, J. (2006). Assessing heterogeneity in meta-analysis: Q statistic or I² index? Psychological Methods, 11(2), 193-206. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.11.2.193
Hwang, G.-J., & Chien, S.-Y. (2023). Broad sense and narrow sense perspectives on the metaverse in education: roles of virtual reality, augmented reality, artificial intelligence and pedagogical theories. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 18(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMLO.2024.135179
Hwang, G.-J., Tu, Y.-F., & Chu, H.-C. (2023). Conceptions of the metaverse in higher education: A draw-a-picture analysis and surveys to investigate the perceptions of students with different motivation levels. Computers & Education, 203, 104868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104868
Jafari, E. (2023). The outlook of learning through metaverse technology from the perspective of teachers in the science education: Association for Learning Technology Journal. Research in Learning Technology, 31, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v31.2933
Jagatheesaperumal, S. K., Ahmad, K., Al-Fuqaha, A., & Qadir, J. (2024). Advancing Education Through Extended Reality and Internet of Everything Enabled Metaverses: Applications, Challenges, and Open Issues. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 17, 1120-1139. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2024.3358859
Ji-yoon, K., & Han-sol, K. (2024). Innovative Integration of Poetry and Visual Arts in Metaverse for Sustainable Education. Education Sciences, 14(9), 1012. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14091012
Johri, A., Joshi, P., Kumar, S., & Joshi, G. (2024). Metaverse for Sustainable Development in a bibliometric analysis and systematic literature review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 435, 140610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.140610
Justo, E., Delgado, A., Llorente-Cejudo, C., Aguilar, R., & Cabero-Almenara, J. (2022). The effectiveness of physical and virtual manipulatives on learning and motivation in structural engineering. Journal of Engineering Education, 111(4), 813-851. https://doi.org/10.1002/jee.20482
Khodabandeh, F. (2022). Exploring the applicability of virtual reality- enhanced education on extrovert and introvert EFL learners’ paragraph writing. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 19(1), 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00334-w
Kitchenham, B., & Charters, S. (2007). Guidelines for performing Systematic Literature Reviews in Software Engineering. 2. https://docs.edtechhub.org/lib/EDAG684W.
Kshetri, N., Rojas-Torres, D., & Grambo, M. (2022). The Metaverse and Higher Education Institutions. IT Professional, 24(6), 69-73. https://doi.org/10.1109/MITP.2022.3222711
Lin, Y.-C., Chien, S.-Y., & Hou, H.-T. (2024). A multi-dimensional scaffolding-based virtual reality educational board game design framework for service skills training. Education and Information Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13243-4
López-Belmonte, J., Pozo-Sánchez, S., Moreno-Guerrero, A.-J., & Lampropoulos, G. (2023). Metaverse in Education: a systematic review. Revista de Educación a Distancia (RED), 23(73). https://doi.org/10.6018/red.511421
Luan, L., Gwo-Jen, H., Yanqing, Y., Zhihong, L., & and Jing, B. (2025). The effects of a self-developed virtual reality environment on college EFL learners’ vocabulary learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 33(1), 335-346. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2024.2344056
Maghaydah, S., Al-Emran, M., Maheshwari, P., & Al-Sharafi, M. A. (2024). Factors affecting metaverse adoption in education: A systematic review, adoption framework, and future research agenda. Heliyon, 10(7). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28602
Makransky, G., Terkildsen, T. S., & Mayer, R. E. (2019). Adding immersive virtual reality to a science lab simulation causes more presence but less learning. Learning and Instruction, 60, 225-236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.12.007
Mansoory, M. S., Khazaei, M. R., Azizi, S. M., & Niromand, E. (2021). Comparison of the effectiveness of lecture instruction and virtual reality-based serious gaming instruction on the medical students’ learning outcome about approach to coma. BMC Medical Education, 21(1), 347. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-021-02771-z
Mercan, G., & Selçuk, Z. V. (2024). The Role of Metaverse Technology in Education: A Systematic Review of Opportunities, Challenges, and Educational Potential. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 14(2), 360-375. https://doi.org/10.19126/suje.1376341
Mingyu, G., Yunus, M. M., & Rafiq, K. R. M. (2024). Using Metaverse-based Learning as a Strategy to Improve Higher Education: A Systematic Review (2019-2023). International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARPED/v13-i1/20856
Morris, S. B., & DeShon, R. P. (2002). Combining effect size estimates in meta-analysis with repeated measures and independent-groups designs. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 105-125. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.105
Najmi, A. H., Alameer, Y. R., & Alhalafawy, W. S. (2024). Exploring the Enablers of IoT in Education: A Qualitative Analysis of Expert Tweets. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 8(10), 5079. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i10.5079
Nicolaidou, I., Petros, P., & and Boglou, D. (2023). Comparing immersive Virtual Reality to mobile applications in foreign language learning in higher education: a quasi-experiment. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(4), 2001-2015. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1870504
Panda, G., Arora, M., Ghoshal, I., Garza-Reyes, J. A., & Kaswan, M. S. (2024). Application of metaverse in higher education: a systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis. The TQM Journal(ahead-of-print). https://doi.org/10.1108/TQM-08-2024-0279
Park, S. M., & Kim, Y. G. (2022). A Metaverse: Taxonomy, Components, Applications, and Open Challenges. IEEE Access, 10, 4209-4251. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3140175
Pujasari, R. S., Fatimah, A. S., Sri, M., & Sulastri, F. (2024). Potential Benefits of Metaverse Concept Implementation in English for Tourism Course: A Case Study in Indonesian Higher Education Contexts. International Journal of Language Education, 8(3), 520-532. https://doi.org/10.26858/ijole.v8i3.66494
Ronaghi, M. H., & Forouharfar, A. (2024). Virtual reality and the simulated experiences for the promotion of entrepreneurial intention: An exploratory contextual study for entrepreneurship education. The International Journal of Management Education, 22(2), 100972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2024.100972
Roy, R., Babakerkhell, M. D., Mukherjee, S., Pal, D., & Funilkul, S. (2023). Development of a framework for metaverse in education: a systematic literature review approach. IEEE Access, 11, 57717-57734. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3283273
Sá, M. J., & Serpa, S. (2023). Metaverse as a learning environment: Some considerations. Sustainability, 15(3), 2186. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032186
Sawilowsky, S. S. (2009). New effect size rules of thumb. Journal of modern applied statistical methods, 8(2), 26. https://doi.org/10.22237/jmasm/1257035100
Shadiev, R., Wang, X., & Shen, S. (2024). Effects of immersion and interactive strategies on students’ intercultural competence in virtual learning environments. Education and Information Technologies, 30(5), 5883-5919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13030-1
Shi, C., & Park, J. Y. (2024). A systematic review of the Metaverse in formal education. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-04-2024-0162
Shu, X., & Gu, X. (2023). An Empirical Study of A Smart Education Model Enabled by the Edu-Metaverse to Enhance Better Learning Outcomes for Students. Systems, 11(2), 75. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems11020075
Simsek, E. I., & Baltaci, S. (2024). A systematic examination of metaverse technologies, with emphasis on second life as a pedagogical instrument. Journal of Computers in Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-024-00329-8
Suiçmez, İ., & Ozansoy, K. (2024). Development of Sustainable Education Environments in Higher Education with Metaverse Applications. Sustainability, 16(23), 10331. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310331
Sung, E., Kwon, O., & Sohn, K. (2023). NFT luxury brand marketing in the metaverse: Leveraging blockchain-certified NFTs to drive consumer behavior. Psychology & Marketing, 40(11), 2306-2325. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21854
Tamim, R. M., Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Abrami, P. C., & Schmid, R. F. (2011). What Forty Years of Research Says About the Impact of Technology on Learning: A Second-Order Meta-Analysis and Validation Study. Review of Educational Research, 81(1), 4-28. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654310393361
Tüzün, H., & Özdinç, F. (2016). The effects of 3D multi-user virtual environments on freshmen university students' conceptual and spatial learning and presence in departmental orientation. Computers & Education, 94, 228-240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.12.005
UNESCO, I. (2014). ISCED Fields of Education and Training 2013 (ISCED-F 2013): manual to accompany the International Standard Classification of Education 2011. Montreal: UNESCO IFS. https://doi.org/10.15220/978-92-9189-150-4-en
Villalonga-Gómez, C., Ortega-Fernández, E., & Borau-Boira, E. (2023). Fifteen years of metaverse in Higher Education: A systematic literature review. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2023.3302382
Vrellis, I., Avouris, N., & Mikropoulos, T. A. (2016). Learning outcome, presence and satisfaction from a science activity in Second Life. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 32(1). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.2164
Wang, H., Ning, H., Lin, Y., Wang, W., Dhelim, S., Farha, F., Ding, J., & Daneshmand, M. (2023). A survey on the metaverse: The state-of-the-art, technologies, applications, and challenges. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 10(16), 14671-14688. https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2023.3278329
Wang, Y., & Pan, L. (2025). Immersive virtual reality in education: impact on the emotional intelligence of university students. Education and Information Technologies, 30(4), 5283-5299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13013-2
Wang, Y., Su, Z., Zhang, N., Xing, R., Liu, D., Luan, T. H., & Shen, X. (2022). A survey on metaverse: Fundamentals, security, and privacy. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 25(1), 319-352. https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2022.3202047
Winkelmann, K., Keeney-Kennicutt, W., Fowler, D., & Macik, M. (2017). Development, Implementation, and Assessment of General Chemistry Lab Experiments Performed in the Virtual World of Second Life. Journal of Chemical Education, 94(7), 849-858. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.6b00733
Winkelmann, K., Wendy, K.-K., Debra, F., Maria, L. M., Paola, P. G., & and Joan Ahlborn, C. (2020). Learning gains and attitudes of students performing chemistry experiments in an immersive virtual world. Interactive Learning Environments, 28(5), 620-634. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2019.1696844
Yang, S.-Y., & Oh, Y.-H. (2022). The effects of neonatal resuscitation gamification program using immersive virtual reality: A quasi-experimental study. Nurse Education Today, 117, 105464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2022.105464
Yang, X., Cheng, P.-Y., Liu, X., & Shih, S.-P. (2024). The impact of immersive virtual reality on art education: A study of flow state, cognitive load, brain state, and motivation. Education and Information Technologies, 29(5), 6087-6106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12041-8
Yenduri, G., Kaluri, R., Rajput, D. S., Lakshmanna, K., Gadekallu, T. R., Mahmud, M., & Brown, D. J. (2023). From Assistive Technologies to Metaverse—Technologies in Inclusive Higher Education for Students With Specific Learning Difficulties: A Review. IEEE Access, 11, 64907-64927. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3289496
Yuan, Y., Teng, W., Zhi, H., & Xu, J. (2024). Cognition, Experience & reaction: optimizing the Use of the Metaverse in Future Education from the perspective of the IPOP Theory. International Communication of Chinese Culture, 11(2), 239-257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40636-024-00289-9
Zaki, M. Z. T., El-Refai, W. Y., Alharthi, M. A., Al-Hafdi, F. S., Najmi, A. H., Bakey, F. M. A. E., & Alhalafawy, W. S. (2024). The Effect of Mobile Search Retrieval Types on Self-Regulated Learning Among Middle School Students. Journal of Ecohumanism, 3(8). https://doi.org/10.62754/joe.v3i8.5005
Zaki, M. Z. T., El-Refai, W. Y., Najmi, A. H., Al-Hafdi, F. S., Alhalafawy, W. S., & Abd El Bakey, F. M. (2024). The Effect of Educational Activities through the Flipped Classroom on Students with Low Metacognitive Thinking. Journal of Ecohumanism, 3(4), 2476-2491. https://doi.org/10.62754/joe.v3i4.3770
Zallio, M., & Clarkson, P. J. (2022). Designing the metaverse: A study on inclusion, diversity, equity, accessibility and safety for digital immersive environments. Telematics and Informatics, 75, 101909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2022.101909
Zhang, X., Chen, Y., Hu, L., & Wang, Y. (2022). The metaverse in education: Definition, framework, features, potential applications, challenges, and future research topics [Review]. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1016300
Zhou, Q., Wang, B., & Mayer, I. (2024). Understanding the social construction of the metaverse with Q methodology. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 208, 123716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2024.123716
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 International Journal of Technology in Education and Science
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
